Four Kinds of Meaning - I.A. Richards

'FOUR KINDS OF MEANING'

I.A. Richards

Those who trust books forget that little sums constitute one bigger group. They do not consider whether little sums are properly constituted or not. Atlast, they find the error clearly. They believe the little sums and do not find a clear way to the understanding of the book. They spend time in fluttering over their books as birds do while they (birds) enter through the chimney. They are finding themselves enclosed in a chamber. They flutter at the reflection of light on a glass window. They do not have the knowledge to understand through which way they came into the chamber.

- Leviathan

After so much of documentation, the readers would be in a mood to welcome an attempt to point at some morals and some guiding principles with the help of which the complicated and irregular ways followed by them may become less confusing. Otherwise, we have to admit the defeat in the principle- 'as many men, so many opinions' as the standard principle of criticism. A hundred verdicts from a hundred readers is the only result of our attempts. This result is completely contrary to the hope and intention of the author. But before the moral can be pointed out, it has to be made distinct from the rest and the guiding principles. The guiding principle cannot be set up without some preliminary efforts. The analysis and the distinctions that follow are unavoidable if the conclusions to which they lead are to be understood precisely with confidence.

Analysing clearly the ten difficulties listed at the end of Part I, by taking them one by one in the order they are listed is the proper procedure. When we proceed we can understand the reason for the order. The difficulties which depend one upon the another are like a group ofmonkeys. In spite of the difficulties, we can understand easily where we should begin. The difficulty of all our reading is the problem of making out the meaning. It is the starting point. The answers to the following questions are the master-keys to all the problems of criticism.

1) What is a meaning?

2) What are we doing when we endeavour to make it out?

3) What is it we are making out?

If we make use of these master-keys, the theory of poetry is revealed to us and a new and impressive order is discovered. Some people get these master keys ('open sesame') to poetry by a natural gift without much labour. For others, certain general reflections will help even though we are not encouraged to depend upon them.

There are several kinds of meaning for the study of literature or any other mode of communication. Knowingly or unknowingly we all play with words and their meanings when we converse. We are keeping the billiard-balls in the air while we balance the cue on our nose. We are active participants in speaking and writing but passive in listening and reading. The total meaning which we desire is always a blend or combination of several contributary meanings of different types. The language of poetry has to perform several functions simultaneously. Unless we understand the differences between these functions, we will misconceive most of the difficulties of criticism. There are four types of function or four kinds of meanings in poetry for understanding criticism. It is clear that all human speech can be interpreted only from these four aspects. They are called Sense, Feeling, Tone and Intention.

1) Sense

We speak to convey something to the listener and listen by expecting to be conveyed by the speaker. We use words while we speak, to attract the listeners attention on some state of affairs or to put before them some items for consideration and to excite in them some thoughts about these items.

2) Feeling

We have some feelings about the items which we referred and about the state of affairs which we referred to. Here feeling refers to our attitude, some special direction, bias, some personal flavours towards it. We use language to express these feelings. Likewise, we pick up these feelings rightly or wrongly when we listen from the speech of the speaker, whether he intends to convey or not. No feeling enters when we speak of or listen subject like Mathematics.

3) Tone

The speaker chooses or arranges his words differently to suit his audience and of his relation to them. The tone of his speech reflects his knowledge of his relation with the audience.

4) Intention

Apart from what he says (sense), his attitude to what he is talking about (Feeling) and his attitude to his listener (tone), there exists the speaker's intention, his aim. This is what the speaker is trying to promote. Normally a speaker speaks with a purpose. His purpose modifies his speech. The understanding of the purpose or aim or intention of the speech is important for understanding the meaning of the speaker. If we do not understand the intention we cannot estimate the success of the speech. The success of a writer depends upon the reader's understanding of the four kinds of meaning. Sometime the purpose of the writer in writing will be no more than Sense, Feeling and Tone. Often the intention of the writer works through the combination of the three functions.

Intention may control the stress laid upon the points in an argument. It may shape the arrangements of the points. Phrases such as 'for contrasts' sake' or 'let it be supposed emphasize the intention of the speaker. Intention can control the 'plot'. Intention is revealed when the author is hiding his hand. It has a special importance in dramatic and semi-dramatic literature. The influence of the writer's intention upon the language he uses is separable from the other three influences. Its effects can be considered separately.

On many occasions we find the failure of one or other of these functions. Sometime all the four functions may fail together. A reader may misinterpret the sense, distort the feeling, mistake the tone and disregard the intention. A partial misunderstanding of any one function may involve the misinterpretation of the remaining three.

If we analyse our uses of language as a whole we find at one time one function and at another time some other function may become predominant. If we analyse certain typical forms of writing, we can understand the possible situations. For example, a man writing a scientific treatise will put the Sense of what he has to say first. He will subordinate his feelings about his subject or about other views upon it. He will be careful in not to let them interfere to distort his argument. His tone will be conventional. His intention will be to make his sense clear and precise sothat everyone will easily understand and accept what he says. He would introduce relevant aims to direct the attention of his readers to new aspects or to encourage or discourage certain methods of approach.

Consider a writer who engaged in popularising some of the results of science. His intention is to popularise the result. First, he would sacrifice precise and adequate statement of the sense of his writing for the sake of general intelligibility.

Secondly, to awaken and encourage the readers' interest, he would resort to exhibit his lively feelings towards his subject matter. Thirdly, more variety of tone will be called for. Jokes, humours, illustrations and even certain amount of cajolery are admissible. Then he would try to establish a human relation between him and the audience. All these functions would interfere with the accuracy of the writer's statement. If the subject has a tendency to political, ethical or theological implications, the intention of the writer would become prominent in his writing.

Political tendency leads to political speeches. It is very difficult to assign anyone of the four functions of the language to a public speech delivered during a General Election. There is no doubt, the promotion of the speaker's intention is the predominant function. His aim is to broadcast his intention through feelings about causes, policies, leadings, opponents and favourable and appropriate adjustment of his tone by establishing favourable relationship with his  audience. In this process the facts are completely subordinated.

In conversation, we get the clearest examples of these shifts of function. Intention may completely subjugate other functions. Sometime Feeling or Tone may express themselves through Sense. We make clear statements about Feelings and attitudes towards things and people. Diplomatic formulae are good examples of the expression of feelings. Expressions like 'Thank You so much' and 'Pleased to meet you' help us to live amicably with one another. Psychological analyses and introspective discourses which are found in fiction and in sophisticated conversation came under the category of conversation.

Feeling and sometimes Tone may operate through Sense in poetry in which statements are made only to expres feeling and not to state 'Sense'. So it is wrong to question the truth of stuch statements. The statements in poetry are expressions of feelings and attitudes. They are not doctrines and theories. There is no danger of committing any mistake with narrative poetry but with 'philosophical' or 'meditative' poetry there is a great danger of a confusion which may have two set of consequences.

There are many people who read any poetry, take all its statements seriously and are disappointed to find them silly. To them 'My soul is a ship in full sail' has nothing to do with psychology. To them 'Beauty is Truth, truth Beauty' appears to be the quintessance of an aesthetic philosophy, not as the expression of feelings.

The subjugation of statement for the purpose of evoking emotions can be made in innumerable methods. A poet may misrepresent facts. He may make illogical statements. He may present unreasonable metaphors. He may mention trivial, silly, irrelevant non-sensical statements in the interests of the other functions (to express feelings or to adjust tone or to further his intention) of his language. If he succeeds in these aims no reader can validly say anything against him.

These indirect devices for expressing one's feeling through illogical, irrelevant and non-sensical statements are not peculiar to poetry. A large part of criticism comes under this head. Critics always express their feelings about poetry and poets than make statements about poetry. In reality many statements are disguised expression of Feeling, Tone and Intention. Dr. Bradley's remark that 'Poetry is a spirit' and Dr. Mackail remarks that 'Poetry is a continuous substance or energy whose progress is immortal are eminent examples of critical statements. They carry more Feeling, Tone and Intention than Sense. Some should avoid the errors of misunderstanding in our reading and the error of criticising poets and poetry for their superficial statements.

_________________

I.A. Richards, a prominent literary critic and philosopher, introduced the concept of the "Four Kinds of Meaning" in his book The Philosophy of Rhetoric (1936). This theory is essential in understanding how meaning is constructed and interpreted in language. Richards argued that words and statements don't have fixed meanings; instead, meaning arises from the interaction between the text and the reader. Here are the four kinds of meaning he outlined:

1. Sense

• Definition: The literal or primary meaning of a word or statement; the straightforward, factual content.
• Explanation: Sense refers to the logical and clear reference of the words, emphasizing what is directly stated.
• Example: In the sentence "The sky is blue," the sense is the direct assertion about the color of the sky.

2. Feeling

• Definition: The emotional tone or attitude conveyed by the words.
• Explanation: This deals with the emotions or attitudes of the speaker, writer, or reader. It shows how the words make the audience feel.
• Example: In "What a breathtaking view!", the feeling is one of awe and admiration.

3. Tone

• Definition: The writer's or speaker's attitude toward the subject or audience.
• Explanation: Tone reflects the relationship and intent behind the communication, often discernible from word choice and style.
• Example: In "You must be joking!" the tone could be sarcastic or incredulous, depending on context.

4. Intention

• Definition: The purpose or aim behind the communication.
• Explanation: Intention reveals what the speaker or writer wants to achieve, such as to inform, persuade, entertain, or express.
• Example: In "Buy one, get one free," the intention is to encourage the audience to purchase.

Significance of the Theory

Richards' theory highlights the multifaceted nature of communication and the importance of context in interpretation. It shows that meaning is not just about words themselves but also about their interplay with the speaker, listener, and the situation in which they are used. This approach is especially useful in literary criticism, rhetoric, and modern semantics, as it helps readers and analysts better understand the depth and complexity of texts.

1 Mark:

1. Who proposed the theory of the Four Kinds of Meaning?
   (Answer: I.A. Richards)

2. Name one of the Four Kinds of Meaning.
   (Answer: Sense / Feeling / Tone / Intention)

3. What does "Sense" in the Four Kinds of Meaning refer to?
   (Answer: The literal or factual meaning of a statement.)

4. Which kind of meaning deals with the emotional tone of words?
   (Answer: Feeling)

2 Marks:

1. Define "Sense" with an example.
   Answer: Sense is the literal or factual meaning of words. Example: "Water freezes at 0 degrees Celsius".

2. What is the difference between Feeling and Tone?
   Answer: Feeling is the emotion conveyed by words, while Tone reflects the speaker’s attitude toward the subject or audience.

3. Give an example of a sentence showing "Intention" and explain its purpose.
   Answer: "Please wear a helmet while riding." The intention is to encourage safety.

4. Why is "Tone" important in communication?
   Answer: Tone sets the mood and shows the speaker's attitude, which affects how the message is received.

5 Marks 

1. Explain "Feeling" and "Intention" with one example each.
   Answer: Feeling is the emotional impact of words. Example: "I’m thrilled to meet you!" shows excitement. Intention is the purpose of the communication. Example: "Register today to avail a discount!" aims to persuade.

2. How do "Sense" and "Feeling" work together in a sentence? Give an example.
   Answer: Sense provides the literal meaning, while Feeling adds emotional depth. Example: "The storm destroyed everything" has the sense (describing the destruction) and feeling (conveying sadness or fear.

3. Write a short note on the significance of the Four Kinds of Meaning in communication.
   Answer: The Four Kinds of Meaning help us understand the complexity of language. Sense clarifies facts, Feeling evokes emotions, Tone shows attitude, and Intention defines purpose. Together, they create effective communication.

10 Marks:

1. Discuss in detail the Four Kinds of Meaning by I.A. Richards, with appropriate examples.
   Answer should include: Definitions and explanations of Sense, Feeling, Tone, and Intention, along with examples like:

   • Sense: "The Eiffel Tower is in Paris."
   • Feeling: "I’m so excited about this opportunity!"
   • Tone: "Do you think this is funny?" (sarcastic tone).
   • Intention: "Recycle to save the planet" (persuasive intent). Conclude with their role in enhancing communication.

2. How do the Four Kinds of Meaning interrelate in a piece of communication? Use a detailed example to support your answer.
   Answer: Explain that the types rarely exist in isolation. For example, "Please drive carefully in the rain" includes:

   • Sense: A direct warning about driving in the rain.
   • Feeling: Concern for safety.
   • Tone: Caring and cautious.
   • Intention: To ensure the listener drives safely. Conclude by discussing how this interplay makes messages richer and more impactful.

3. Explain how I.A. Richards' theory of meaning is relevant in modern communication and literature.
   (Answer: Discuss its relevance in understanding complex texts, emotional impact in storytelling, setting tone in professional communication, and achieving intended outcomes in advertising or speeches. Include examples to highlight its application.)

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